According to Emilio Pantojas Garcia in his article “Economic Integration and Caribbean Identity: Convergences and Divergences”, “Three key factors that constitute the context upon which contradictory tendencies act simultaneously to foster and hinder Caribbean regional integration are discussed: geopolitical, economic and cultural-historical factors. These factors configure “dialectics of cooperation and competition” and account for both, the basis and fulcrum of regional integration and the basis and fulcrum of regional competition and, often, mistrust” (Pantojas 53).

The History of the Caribbean began with a great deal of intolerance and mistrust which has infiltrated its way into the contemporary Caribbean society. Today, the Caribbean is plagued with a plethora of social ills stemming from this past of mistrust and intolerance. Through analysing the history of the Caribbean, particularly the racial intolerances, mistrust in politics and corruption, this essay will discuss the mistrust that also exists in today’s society. 

Initially, the Caribbean was historically characterised as being discriminatory towards minority groups. Before plantation societies were established and the voyage of Columbus, the Caribbean was inhabited by Indigenous societies. However, in 1492, this changed when Christopher Columbus came to the Caribbean in search of a New World. Desperate to spread the word of God, find gold and claim glory, he intolerantly disregarded the religion and practices of the Indigenous Peoples. He speculated on his first arrival that they “would easily be made Christians, as it appeared that they had no religion” (Wisconsin Historical Society 111). His intolerance combined with the misunderstanding in the minds of the Indigenous Peoples made it easier for him to control them. “In order to win their goodwill…”, he wrote, “…because I could see that they were a people who could more easily be won over and converted to our hold faith by kindness than by force, I gave some of them…things of little value, with which they were very pleased and became so friendly that it was a wonder to see” (Wisconsin Historical Society 111), These people, who he would soon exploit in a system neatly designed for trade, saw nothing wrong with the practices of Columbus. 

With his belief that the Indigenous Peoples were “a race of people very poor in everything”, he enslaved them in the encomienda system (Wisconsin Historical Society 111). Tortured, abused, and killed mercilessly, the Indigenous Peoples tried to retaliate but to no avail. Hence, it can be said that the mass genocide of the Indigenous People began, because of a high level of intolerance held by Columbus.

This intolerance and complete disregard for other minority groups in society can be seen today in the overall rejection of same-sex relationships. Across the region, there is clear discrimination towards gay men and toward relationships between men as it challenges the region’s main idea of masculinity. This idea of masculinity is based on a “culture of machismo”, which sets out a set of values and ideas of masculine identity based on the number of or type of heterosexual relationships a man has (Chinapoo 434). This is blatantly portrayed in the music made and played throughout the region. A very popular instance of this is Buju Banton’s song “Boom Bye Bye”, where he says,

“…boom bye bye inna batty bwoy head, rude bwoy nah we nah promote no batty man, dem haffi dead.”

Songs like these, are celebrated and popular in the Caribbean. As such, they have promoted the rampant outward discrimination of gay persons with derogatory terms such as “batty” and the threats to “bun” them or “shoot” them. 

 Furthermore, the history of political corruption has caused high levels of mistrust between those in power and the citizens of these countries. Caribbean countries since the period of slavery have been subjected to political corruption. Robinson states that political corruption in Jamaica began during the slave era, as Jamaica’s economy remained stagnant until the 1930’s due to the decline in sugar production and slave labour (Robinson 140).

As England and its empire oversaw the Caribbean’s political affairs, the empire abandoned mercantilism and resorted to the laissez-faire method which financially damaged Jamaica’s economy. The main goal of a government is to protect and allow for the upward mobility of society. Due to England being responsible for Jamaica’s economy, its mission was to provide economic security, however, the government failed to do so which led to turmoil within Jamaica. Through this, it is apparent that the British Government only sought to exploit Jamaica’s economy as opposed to financially uplifting the country. The level of corruption within Caribbean countries stemmed from the colonial period, as those who were in power guaranteed that slaves were treated as a secondary concern. As a result, this mistrust within the Caribbean has been present from the colonial past and is still prevalent now. 

In addition, the history of government corruption has caused mistrust within the British West Indies as those in power opted to financially secure themselves rather than the countries. Miller adds that in the seventeenth century, English colonial governors used their powerful positions to provide and reward those closest to them. Governors controlled colonial grants, where they were able to obtain the best lands and goods. Moreover, those in power were also responsible for the importation and exportation of goods and allowed for piracy, buccaneering a contraband system to be implemented within the Caribbean (Collier 110). This illustrates that the Caribbean sole purpose was to be exploited by the English. Due to this corruption, those who were considered poor remained poor while those in power lived in luxury and wealth. This corruption is still prevalent today as many politicians abuse their power which proves to be detrimental to many Caribbean countries. The Caribbean has been plagued by corruption since the period of slavery, as a result, many still find it difficult to trust those who run these countries. 

Contemporarily, corruption is not a unique phenomenon in the Caribbean. Perhaps, one can argue it is a characteristic of the government. As such, there is grave mistrust and intolerance within government hierarchy in the Caribbean. White-collar crime was first posited by Sociologist Edwin Sutherland in 1939 to describe the frauds committed by business and government professionals (Sookdeo). It is often regarded that these crimes are victimless but this is not the case. According to Maria Sookdeo, ACCA business development manager, “these are not victimless crimes as a single scam can destroy a company, devastate families by wiping out their life savings, or cost investors billions of dollars or even all three” (Sookdeo).

Most of the time these crimes go unpunished and pushed under the carpet. A recent example is seen in Trinidad and Tobago. In 2016, Marlene McDonald, held public office under the PNM (People’s national movement) and faced a multitude of allegations regarding nepotism and creating fake organisations to gain access to public funds. Despite these poor optics, Prime Minister Keith Rowley re-appointed McDonald Minister of Public Utilities in 2017, where she was fired mere days after being sworn in. Once again, she was further re-appointed this time in the Ministry of Public Administration, in April 2018. In August of 2019, she was arrested for the same charges in 2016 and instances of money laundering (Singh and Khan). 

Considering the accusations and allegations put forth against her, why was she still allowed to be engaged in governmental affairs continuously? Prime Minister Keith Rowley has noted corruption has become a way of life in Trinidad and Tobago, but what is he or the government or the people doing to address it? If it is not addressed the issue of mistrust and intolerance will continue to pervade our societies and some will always be above the law. 

Another historical factor which has shaped today’s Caribbean society is seen in the mistrust of political parties and superpowers. One of the most obvious instances of mistrust can be seen in the case of the Cuban society in the 1900s. The US, during this time, infiltrated the Cuban government, by placing one of their own as the head of society. With the use of bribes and ‘puppet leaders’, the US crumbled the society of Cuba to remove all communist views. The intolerance that drove the United States was out of the fear and mistrust that Cuba would stay grounded. According to Castro, “the US has corrupted democracy and made it into a tool of acculturation.” This effort to acculturate Cuba also transferred the mistrust and intolerance into the society of Cuba. Under the reign of Batista, Cuba became a wealthy society but also one overrun by corruption. Tulchin et Al. postulated “This emergent sector also includes the wealthy elites who have amassed huge fortunes through corruption, illegal business operations, and the provision of goods and services in the chronically lacking Cuban food market” (Tulchin 42).

Coupled with acts of nepotism and discrimination, this minority ensured that most of the money in Cuba stayed within their hands, to the disadvantage of the Lower Class. The Upper Class may have mistrusted the Lower Class by believing that once the money entered their hands, they would become socially mobile, move up status in society and eventually take the place of those high in society. To prevent this, they only promoted those within their family and kept marriage also confined to class. This led to a closed stratification system as there was little to no social mobility due to the literacy rates being at its lowest. It also made the Lower Class mistrust the power that they were being ruled by. With no say in society, a lack of education and little to no funds, the lower class was ready to overthrow the dictator. Lead by Fidel Castro and Che Guevara, the Cuban Revolution was on its way to beginning.

Regardless of this obvious evidence of historical mistrust and intolerance towards international superpowers, it seems that in contemporary times there seems to be greater trust and tolerance towards the West. Undoubtedly, globalisation has played an integral part in this ‘trust’ and ‘tolerance’. Globalisation is the ‘intensification of social global relations that link distant localities in such a way that the happenings that occur in one part of the globe are happening in another” (Giddens 4). Globalisation has cultivated this increasing trust and tolerance of foreign powers and goods. Although this does possess some benefits, it has allowed for a greater presence of cultural imperialism, which poses a threat to our Caribbean region.

Neo-Marxist writer, George Ritzer in his theory of ‘Mcdonaldization’ notes that it is through American food companies and other Transnational Companies that have changed and shaped our regional culture (Ritzer 3). This tolerance has trust has led to the erosion of Caribbean identity and culture as there is the idea that, ‘West is the Best’. Although there seems to be this movement away from the mistrust and intolerance, it is not moving in the right direction towards Caribbean identity and unity. Therefore, it can be said that there is mistrust of and intolerance of Caribbean culture due to a preference for foreign goods.

In conclusion, mistrust and intolerance continue to be salient features and characteristics of the Caribbean. West Indian integration and unity are, therefore, essential if there is to be any development of the region. However, the long history of mistrust in politics and intolerance towards minority groups amongst other marginalised groups has persisted and is evident in today’s society. 

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Works Cited

Bobea, Lilian, et al. Changes in Cuban society since the nineties. Ed. Joseph S. Tulchin. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Latin American Program, 2005.

Chinapoo, Carlton, Norma James, and Maureen Lee-Paisley. Cape Sociology. Pearson Education Limited, 2014.

Collier, Michael W., “Political corruption in the Caribbean basin: a comparative analysis of Jamaica and Costa Rica” (2000). FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 2408.
https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/etd/2408.

Columbus, Christopher. “Journal of the First Voyage of Columbus.” Edited by Edward Gaylord Bourne, American Journeys, Wisconsin Historical Society, 2003, http://content.wisconsinhistory.org/cdm/ref/collection/aj/id/4213.

García, Emilio Pantojas. “Economic integration and Caribbean identity: convergences and divergences.” Caribbean Studies 36.1 (2008): 53-74.

Giddens, Anthony. “Dimensions of globalization.” The new social theory reader (2001): 245-246.

Hodder & Stoughton Ltd. 2015. 2^nd ed.

McEwan and Others v. Attorney General of Guyana [2018] CCJ 30 (AJ)

Ritzer, George. The McDonaldization of society. Pine Forge Press, 1992.

Robinson, Dena. “Corruption in the Caribbean.” Colgate Academic Review, vol. 6, no. 11, 17 July 2012, pp. 135–144. https://commons.colgate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1053&context=car.

Singh, Renuka, and Rishard Khan. “Marlene, Husband Held for Misuse of State Funds.” Trinidad Guardian, 9 Aug. 2019, https://www.guardian.co.tt/news/marlene-husband-held-for-misuse-of-state-funds-6.2.904672.cdd8db0847.

Sookdeo, Maria. “White-Collar Crime.” Trinidad and Tobago Newsday, 7 Feb. 2019, https://newsday.co.tt/2019/02/07/white-collar-crime/.

Sutherland, Edwin. “Edwin Sutherland & The Study of White-Collar Crime.” Study.com, Study.com, https://study.com/academy/lesson/edwin-sutherland-the-study-of-white-collar-crime.html.